A Crash-Course in Basic Navigation Skills for the Novice
Written by Randy Jones

Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Navigation
2. Navigating by Pilotage
3. Navigating by Dead Reckoning
4. VOR Navigation
5. Advanced VOR Navigation

Section 1 -- Introduction to Navigation

Welcome to the only manual on this website that will teach you all you ever need to know about the basic navigation skills needed to fly an aircraft from Point A to Point B. This will be one long manual, so prepare yourself for the long haul. Take lots of notes and review this manual often, as it is soon to become your "bible." You will find loads of useful information, including screenshots and diagrams. If you feel that there is a section that we didn't cover as deeply as you liked, just email us and we'll update the section as needed to assist you better.

Before you read this tutorial, you should be able to read and interpret most, if not all of the gauges on any panel of a given aircraft. If you can't, then you should go back and review that before continuing.

Section 2 -- Navigating by Pilotage

Pilotage has to be the oldest form of navigation known to mankind. It involves navigating from point to point by use of a visual reference. Pilotage is most commonly used in VFR operations, and is NOT reccomended for IFR operations as a method of getting to one point to another.

Under VFR, Pilotage can be used as a way to navigate through a local area, like a quick hop across town with your buddy. You can use it to confirm your location on a sectional chart also.

For the sake of saving the space for the VOR and ILS sections, please refer to the VFR Tutorial for a complete example of a flight by Pilotage with pictures.

Section 3 -- Navigating by Dead Reckoning

Dead Reckoning is used under both VFR and IFR operations as a means to accurately plan a flight along a defined set of flight segments. The flight segments can be a Victor Airway (most commonly), landmarks, other types of Navaids, etc. When you plan your flight with Dead Reckoning, you'll have a measured distance of each leg flown, estimated time enroute, estimated fuel consumption, magnetic heading to be flown, and computed groundspeed for each segment of the flight. Check the weather often, as the weather is bound to change on you somehow. Maybe the winds will change speed and direction, which will affect your heading, groundspeed, and fuel consumption.

For VFR Dead Reckoning, your flightplan may include a course between two visual references on the ground, combined with following a Victor Airway. For example, you may be on a flight from Airport A that follows a Victor Airway to a certain lake, then you may fly direct from that lake to another city, then onto another Airway, etc. You still have to record all of your figures on your flightplan. Mind you, that flightplan is much different from the flightplan that you file with ATC when on VATSIM. They don't have fields for time enroute, groundspeed for each segment, fuel burn, etc. All they care about is your route of flight, aircraft type, departure and arrival airport, and any notes that pertain to your flight.

For IFR, the principle is basically the same. You'll be navigating from VOR to VOR, by GPS, using RNAV, or on Victor Airways instead of using visual aids for point to point navigation. In this case, you'll compute your figures based on each leg inbetween a fix or on each segment of the Airway that you plan to use.

Each time you file IFR, you should have a basic Dead Reckoning flightplan filled out, no matter what the distance. Under IFR, such things as fuel consumption and time enroute are even more vital than on a VFR flightplan, as you may have something called a Clearance Limit (discussed in the IFR tutorial) before your next fix enroute, and you need to make sure you have enough fuel to follow IFR rules (you must have enough fuel to make it to your alternate airport, plus enough for 45 minutes of flight at level cruise).

The following are two sample flightplans that use Dead Reckoning, one is VFR and the other is IFR. (The VFR plan is taken from the VFR tutorial.)

This is a VFR flight from K0S9 (Port Townsend) to KTIW (Tacoma/Narrows) in a Piper Warrior II. Assume a cruise speed of 100 kts indicated and a fuel consumption rate of 6.0 gallons per hour. We'll be taking Victor Airway V-4 from Port Townsend down to Elliott Bay. This Airway is flown INBOUND on the SEA VOR (116.8) on Radial (course) 127 degrees (refer to the VOR section of the Navigation Tutorial). At Elliott Bay, we'll head South to Downtown Tacoma, then turn West for landing at Tacoma Narrows. We'll climb up to 3500 feet on V-4 and maintain until Downtown Tacoma. We'll also need clearance to enter Class B airspace prior to crossing Bainbridge Island. Here's what our flight would look like on the flight plan form:

Let's go through the flightplan for a moment. Once you takeoff from Port Townsend, you should overfly the airport at your planned altitude and begin to record your actual time enroute upon crossing the airport. You fly the magnetic heading of 175 once you're over the airport, and set your Nav 1 to the Seattle VOR (116.8) and turn the OBS to 127, as you're about to intercept that radial. Once the VOR needle begins to center, start your turn and time it so that you'll roll out established on the 127 Radial of the SEA VOR, which will put you dead in the middle of Victor Airway V-4. Fly this route for the 30 nm as indicated on your flight plan. Once over Elliott Bay, turn to the magnetic heading of 169 for the 20 nm run down to Downtown Tacoma. Once you're over downtown Tacoma, turn right to 275 and start your descent to TPA and call up the Tower at Tacoma Narrows and advise them that you're inbound for landing.

If you use the above flightplan on a VFR flight on VATSIM, you would file it in the "Route of Flight" box like this: K0S9-V-4-Elliott Bay-Downtown Tacoma-KTIW.

Let's take a look at an IFR flightplan using Dead Reckoning and see the difference. For the sake of simplicity, this IFR flightplan will not utilize a SID, STAR, or IAP.

This flight will be from Spokane International (KGEG) to Paine Field (KPAE). How to navigate this flight plan will be explained in the VOR tutorial below. All airways, distances, and courses were taken from Low Altitude Enroute Charts used for IFR flight planning, which are great for commuter routes and light aircraft when working on flight plans.

This flightplan might be a bit more confusing than the VFR flightplan, but don't worry, it'll all become clear soon. You depart GEG and fly a heading of 192 (per wind correction) fly over and intercept Spokane VOR (GEG) Radial 241 with a FROM indication and fly direct on the airway until you intercept V-120 and fly it to the SEA VOR. (In the VOR section, this flightplan and V-120 will be discussed in detail, don't worry!) Turn north and intercept SEA VOR Radial 341 and fly direct to PAE for landing.

Are the numbers confusing? Let's clarify a few things. On your secional chart, all directions that you get from using a plotter will be TRUE, not magnetic. This does not include Victor Airways, which are already indicated in magnetic, as they usually follow a specific radial of a VOR. So as you make your wind corrections, you need to take into account the magnetic variation as indicated on your chart. It's usually a dashed purple line that cuts across the chart and indicates a numerical figure with a + or - which tells you how much to add or subtract from your wind computations. If you have a "whiz wheel" type flight computer, the back side has a section where you compensate your course for the winds and compute your groundspeed. That's how I came up with the groundspeed figures. Take the grounspeed and correlate it with the distance of each leg and you get a time enroute. Take that time and compare it to the ratio of fuel burn, and you get a fuel consumption figure for each leg as well. Also remember to use the fuel consumption rate for YOUR aircraft, not the sample as listed. That's only for demonstration purposes. A 747 doesn't burn 6 gallons of jetfuel an hour obviously... Other than that, Dead Reckoning with practice isn't as difficult as it looks.

Absorbed enough yet? Go take a break, grab a soda and prepare for the fun. VOR Navigation is up next!

Section 4 -- VOR Navigation

The VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Radiobeacon) has to be the most widely used navigational tool by aircraft of all time (until this GPS thing becomes more standardized). Before we get into the how-to section, let's talk a little bit about how a VOR works.

A VOR is a radio beacon that transmits a signal every 360 degrees known as a "radial." Each one of the 360 radials extend straight out from the station as far as the VOR can be recieved. Each radial can be tracked or read with a "TO" or a "FROM" indication from the VOR, indicating your position in relation to the VOR. A VOR is read on the VOR 1 or HSI and VOR 2 or RMI indicators (Nav 2 will be discussed later) by inputting the appropriate frequency into the NAV 1 and NAV 2 radios. VOR's also may have a little something called "Distance Measuring Equipment" also known as DME. A VOR with a DME will be called a VOR/DME. There's a military counterpart of that called a TACAN which works exactly the same, and a VOR with this function is called a VORTAC. To use DME in modern aircraft, just tune in the frequency like you would to tune in a VOR. On older aircraft, you may need to enter the actual channel for the DME/TACAN.

How to Tune in a VOR on NAV 1

First, check the chart for the VOR that you will be using and make sure you either use the frequency listed or write it down somewhere. Input the frequency into the NAV 1 radio and hit the ID function. When you hit the ID function, you will hear the appropriate Morse Code indication for that VOR. Once you have confirmed that the Morse Code matches that which is listed on the chart, center the needle on the VOR indicator/HSI by turning it to the left or right (on Flight Sim, click on the wheel at the bottom side of the VOR until it centers and reads "TO". Now you can use it to navigate with. If you can't identify your VOR with the morse code, or if the morse code is inoperative, the VOR may send out navigational signals but it is not authorized for use.

Let's practice tuning in a VOR! To make it nice and simple, start up Flight Sim and select the Cessna 182 Skylane. Now let's select an airport that we're familiar with. How about Detroit/Wayne County (KDTW). Select any runway and depart (I chose 3L) to an altitude of 3,000 feet MSL and hold that altitude. You can make a turn to the East if you'd like to get out of the way of any departing traffic. Now pause your flight simulator and follow these instructions.

Take a look at your instrument panel and locate your VOR 1 indicator. On this aircraft, it should be just to the right of the Altimeter, as shown in this picture. The VOR 1 also contains a glideslope, which is used for ILS Approaches. VOR 2 is the gauge right below VOR 1.



Now select your Airport/Facilities Directory and find the Navaid Section for the State of Michigan. Look up the VOR for Detroit. It should have the ICAO identifier of "DXO" listed and a frequency of 113.4. Before we tune in the VOR, take a look at the VOR 1 indicator and note what it reads when it's inactive.



Your VOR 1 should indicate a centered needle and have a striped red and white flag at the bottom, which indicates that you are not receiving a signal, as you don't have a VOR tuned in yet.

Now, input the frequency 113.4 into the NAV 1 radio, and if you have an ID function, hit it and listen for the Morse Code. Once you hear it, take a look at VOR 1 and see what happened. Because my aircraft was turned onto an Easterly heading once I reached 2,000 feet, your indications may be slightly different than mine.



Now that you have the VOR tuned and identified, let's turn the OBS wheel (on the lower left) until we get a "TO" indication and the needle is centered. As I mentioned, because of my course, your indications may vary slightly.



The VOR reads on the 244 radial inbound. If I turn around and fly 244 degrees on my heading indicator, I'll fly directly to the VOR. Because I am East of the VOR, I am not physically on the 244 degree radial. Take 244 and subtract 180 and that is the radial that you are on, in this case, the 064 degree radial. Don't believe me? Turn the OBS again and center the needle with a FROM indication.



See how that works? With a VOR, your heading doesn't matter. You'll still be on that radial with a TO or a FROM. You could be heading west instead of east and get the same indications if you were in that same exact spot as I was. That's why VOR's are so neat. Take a look at the diagram below which illustrates several aircraft and their VOR indicators in relation to a VOR. Each airplane is not on a VOR radial from the station in the middle, rather the indication shows their location in relation to the station (TO/FROM) to help you better orient yourself when determining your position from a VOR.



Any questions? Feel free to email myself or Ted and we can help you. Learning how to understand a VOR takes time and patience. On your own time, go to various airports, or maybe your own hometown airport and practice tuning in different VOR's and comparing your location from the VOR with the readings on your VOR 1 indicator. Once you feel confident that you can read and understand the VOR, proceed onto the next section.

Finding Your Position Using Two VORs

Now that you can read a VOR, let's start to learn how to utilize its full potential. Locating your position in relation to two VORs is a good skill for a VFR pilot when he/she gets lost. Here's how to do it.

Start up Flight Simulator and select your trusty Cessna 182 Skylane. Put yourself on Moses Lake/Grant County International (KMWH), the site of our wonderful Training Division that you'll soon be utilizing. Select Runway 32R. Go ahead and takeoff and fly a heading of 320 for 10 minutes, and climb to an altitude of 6,000 feet, whichever comes first. Go ahead and press the pause button and locate two VOR's on your sectional chart that you should have purchased already.

Go ahead and select the Moses Lake VOR (MWH) andinput the frequency of 115.0 into the NAV 1 radio. Tune in the VOR as you have learned and turn the OBS until you have centered the needle with a FROM indication. You will learn why in a moment. Now tune in the Wenatchee VOR (EAT) and input the frequency of 111.0 into the NAV 2 radio. Turn the OBS until you center the needle with a FROM indication. VOR 1 and VOR 2 should now look like this:



Both VOR's have a FROM indication and the needles are centered. Now, note the OBS course selection at the top of eachVOR. VOR 1 (top) has the 320 degree radial of the MWH VOR. Because you're receiving a FROM indication and you are North of the station, you are on the 320 degree radial. VOR 2 indicates that you are on the 072 degree radial FROM the EAT VOR. You are East of the station, and because you have a FROM indication, you are on the 072 degree radial. Here's how you pinpoint your location.

Open up your sectional chart and locate the MWH VOR. Get a pencil and draw a line on the 320 degree radial. Your line should be made with a straight edge, such as a plotter. Now draw a straight line from the 072 degree radial from the EAT VOR until it intersects with the line you drew from MWH. Where the lines intersect, that is your position. According to my VOR's, I am 6 nm NE of the Ephrata Airport (EPH). Pretty neat, huh?

Keep in mind, your indications may be slightly off from mine, and that's fine. Just as long as you're able to read, understand, and use the VOR, I'll be happy.

Navigating by VOR

The majority of your flying under IFR will involve navigating by Victor Airways, which is basically tracking a set course from one VOR to another. Take a closer look at your VOR 1.



On each side of the center you will find five of these "dots." Each dots indicates two degrees of deflection, with a maximum being 10, known as full-scale deflection. If the needle is deflected by one dot, you are off the radial by two degrees and must turn in the direction of the needle. So, if the needle is indicating three dots to the left, you must turn your aircraft to the left, as you are six degrees off of your radial. How much do you turn? Depends on your distance from the VOR. If you're near the VOR, you'll only need to turn a small amount and keep your banking at a minimum. If you're a long distance from the VOR, you may need to execute a standard rate turn or more, and hold a heading that will give you a "cut" back onto your course.

How do you intercept a particular radial? Easy. First you must have your VOR tuned in. If you know which radial you wish to intercept, turn the OBS to that radial and note the indications. If the needle is to the left and you have a TO indication, then you need to turn to the left to intercept your radial. If the indicaton is a FROM with the needle to the right, you need to turn right to intercept (and in some cases, continue the turn until you get a TO indication). You will also need to determine your current heading. Take a look at your heading indicator. What does it read? Compare that to the radial that you wish to intercept. Use your judgement to intercept. Depending on your distance from the Radial that you wish to intercept, you may fly direct to that radial (90 degrees) and give yourself enough time and room to intercept. Many times, however this is not the case. Sometimes you will only need 45 degrees, maybe even 10. Each situation is different.

Another factor to consider is the wind. If you're tracking a VOR radial and you can't seem to stay on it, you may have a crosswind blowing you away from the radial. Determine the direction of the wind and adjust your course. If you're tracking North on the 360 degree radial and you seem to be staying 2 degrees off, with the needle to the right, turn back right and adjust your heading by 10 or 15 degrees to reintercept the radial. If that doesn't work, turn a little more.

Think you're ready to fly that IFR flightplan now? Let's revise that second flightplan as listed way above and I'll tell you how to fly it.

You takeoff from GEG with your IFR clearance (assuming you've read the IFR tutorial) and fly a heading of 192 degrees, as determined by your wind corrections to intercept the 241 radial OUTBOUND from the GEG VOR. Tune NAV 1 to 115.5 and select 241 under the OBS. You should have a from indication. As the needle begins to center, turn right to your heading of 232 with the needle centered. You may need to adjust your heading to stay on the radial, as the forecast winds may have changed. Once you're established at your altitude of 8,000 feet and on the 241 radial with a FROM indication, tune NAV 2 to the EPH VOR (112.6) and select the course of 241 with a TO indication. Halfway between GEG and EPH, change NAV 1 to the NAV 2 frequency and track the 241 radial inbound to EPH. Once you cross EPH, change the OBS to 252 and follow this radial outbound. Set NAV 2 to the EAT VOR, and halfway between EPH and EAT, change NAV 1 to the NAV 2 freqency. Prior to crossing EAT, you're going to want to climb up to 12,000 per the minimum altitude on the Victor Airway. Upon crossing EAT, change the OBS to 253 and follow that radial outbound. Set NAV 2 to the SEA VOR and halfway between switch NAV 1 to the NAV 2 frequency and continue inbound to the SEA VOR. As you approach the SEA VOR, Tune NAV 2 to the PAE VOR, and set the OBS on NAV 1 to 341. Start your descent per ATC instructions and adjust your heading to intercept the 341 degree Radial of the SEA VOR. Once established, make sure you're at your alititude of 3,000 feet, tune NAV 1 to the PAE VOR and continue inbound. At this time, ATC should be guiding you to the active landing runway so you can complete your flight. Make sense? Try it yourself!

Section 5 -- Advanced VOR Navigation

As your proficiency with using the VOR, you'll discover that there are many different types of navigational usages for the VOR.

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

Many times, VOR's are paired up with a little thing known as DME. DME helps you determine your distance from a VOR by telling your your distance from the station in the DME readout. Sometimes, on more advanced aircraft, DME for each VOR can be paired up on a little thing called an HSI that is explained later. DME works great at long distances at high alitudes, but at short range and high altitudes, you have a little thing called "slant range." You may be cruising at FL310 and could find yourself 20 nm East of a VOR, according to your GPS (which doesn't have a slant range). However, the DME might indicate 22 nm. As you get closer to the VOR, the ratio between the DME and the GPS increases. Something to consider when navigating by use of a VOR and DME.

Intersections

On many occasions, you may be guided or be flying to a little something called an intersection. These intersections are defined on charts usually as crossing (intersecting) victor airways (on sectional charts) or as a triangle (either a plain triangle or a solid black one). Sometimes these intersections are determined between two radials of a VOR. Sometimes they're only determined by DME distance from the VOR, or both. Here's some tips on identifying intersections while enroute.

If the intersection is defined by two VOR's: You find yourself cruising a Victor Airway on the 360 degree Radial outbound from the ABC VOR. ATC instructs you to report when crossing HOWDY intersection, which is 20 miles ahead of you, and is identified by the 270 degree Radial of the XYZ VOR intersecting the radial that you are currently on. Tune NAV 2 to XYZ VOR and if you have an OBS on VOR 2, turn the OBS to 270. When the needle centers (don't fly to that radial, just continue on course on the 360 radial of the ABC VOR) on VOR 2, you are at the intersection.